In 1554, he succeeded in defeating Captain Francisco Hernández Girón at the Battle of Pucará, where he captured him in the name of the Crown of Castile.

Original:

“avemos acordado por el gran concimiento y grandes servicios que en aver preso al dho Francisco Fernandez Xiron el dho don Alonso Tito Atauche Ynga nuestro leal basallo y buen Christiano le avemos elexido y señalado por nuestro alcalde Mayor de los quatro suyos para que haga y administre justicia y alzando vara alta pueda a los nuestros sujetos y vasallos y para que asimesmo entienda en hacer y ordenar justicia y castigar los ynobedientesy aver todo lo de mas que convenga para el sosiego quietud ynoblecimiento de esas provinciaspor la presente por nuestro prio pio motuo y cierta ciencia y de nuestra voluntad eleximoscostituimos señalamos a ello al dho don Alonso Tito Atauche Ynga y le damos yotorgamos todo nuestro poder”. (Carlos I, 1555)

Translation:

“In recognition of his great expertise and the significant service rendered by capturing the aforementioned Francisco Hernández Girón, We have chosen and appointed Don Alonso Titu Atauchi Inca—our loyal subject and a good Christian—to serve as our Alcalde Mayor [Chief Magistrate] for the Four Suyus [regions of the Inca Empire]. He is empowered to administer justice and, bearing the staff of high office, to exercise authority over our subjects and vassals. Furthermore, he is tasked with ensuring the administration of justice, punishing the disobedient, and taking all other measures conducive to the peace, tranquility, and advancement of those provinces. By this present instrument—of our own accord, with full knowledge, and by our own free will—We choose, appoint, and designate the aforementioned Don Alonso Titu Atauchi Inca to this position, and We hereby grant and bestow upon him our full authority.” (Charles I, 1555)

Reference:
.- Biblioteca peruana: Manuscritos peruanos del Archivo General de Indias [Peruvian Library: Peruvian Manuscripts from the General Archive of the Indies], Seville, Spain; Rubén Vargas Ugarte (1938).

Don Juan Enríquez gifted his wife a collection of jewels valued at more than 2,500 reales. The wedding was attended by the King and Queen of Spain, as well as titled nobles—including the Prince of Esquilache, the Duke of Villahermosa, the Duke of Gandía, and the Marquis of Alcañices—along with other members of the Borja and Loyola families.

Thus, the descendants of the sovereigns Huayna Cápac, Manco Inca, and Sayri Túpac Inca were united in holy matrimony with the descendants of sovereigns such as Alfonso XI of Castile, John II of Aragon, Sancho VI of Navarre, and Alfonso V of León, as well as Pope Alexander VI.

References:

.- El Inca colonial, Pablo Macera (2006).

.- Historia genealógica y heráldica de la Monarquía española, Casa Real y Grandes de España, Francisco Fernández de Béthencourt (1897).

The infamous Nuño de Guzmán has become synonymous with the worst atrocities committed by the Spanish during the conquest that followed the discovery of the Americas. Fray Bartolomé de las Casas described him as a "great tyrant."

He is particularly well-known for his rivalry with Hernán Cortés and for his acts of cruelty toward the indigenous population. His military campaigns took place in the western regions of present-day Mexico—specifically in the provinces of Michoacán and Pánuco (covering what is now southern Tamaulipas and northern Veracruz)—as well as in the territories that would later form the Kingdom of Nueva Galicia (comprising the modern-day states of Jalisco, Nayarit, Aguascalientes, and part of Zacatecas).

A descendant of the hidalgo (nobility) class, he arrived in the New World holding the title of governor of Pánuco. He was appointed president of the Real Audiencia (Royal Court) of New Spain—a position he held for only one year, as mounting complaints regarding his excesses and cruelty toward the indigenous people forced his removal.

Driven by a voracious hunger for wealth, he launched an extensive expedition through western Mexico, which was marked by the looting and devastation of indigenous communities. He ravaged parts of New Spain that had not yet been conquered by Cortés; he established short-lived settlements and destroyed every indigenous village he encountered, venting his frustration over his failure to discover treasures and riches through acts of fierce vengeance. Beyond the abuses he inflicted upon the native population—and even his own followers—he left behind several settlements, including San Miguel de Culiacán, Compostela, Santiago de los Valles, and the original city of Guadalajara.

Beltrán de Guzmán’s endeavors were defined by extreme violence against the indigenous people. From the very beginning, he faced complaints from both the Spanish and the indigenous population. During the administration of Antonio de Mendoza, the first viceroy of New Spain, legal proceedings were initiated against him. This was known as a juicio de residencia—a judicial procedure under Castilian and colonial law, conducted at the end of a public official's term to evaluate their performance. Anyone could lodge a complaint against an official regarding potential abuses; if found guilty, the official could face punishment, fines, or even the loss of their position.

The Crown decided to put him on trial and dispatched licenciado Diego Pérez de la Torre to conduct an investigation. Pérez de la Torre found him seriously culpable, stripped him of his governance of the province, and had him sent to Spain in shackles. However, following a lengthy trial in Spain—and with the support of his influential relatives—he managed to avoid total disgrace; he retained his encomiendas (grants of indigenous labor and tribute) and his status, though he was ultimately confined to the Castle of Torrejón de Velasco, where he eventually died.

The conquest of New Galicia paved the way for subsequent explorations of northwestern Mexico. Over the course of seven years, Nuño Beltrán de Guzmán explored and conquered nearly a third of Mexico. His brutal campaigns, however, are considered a primary catalyst for the outbreak of the Mixtón War.

No portraits of him are known to exist, save for depictions found in codices.

The Spanish "Real de a Ocho"—history’s first global currency—reveals its place of origin through the mint marks stamped onto its surface. Here is how you can identify the four most significant mints in the Americas:

Mexico (Mo): The letter "M" with a small "o" superimposed. This was the first mint established in the Americas (1535) and the one with the highest output.

Lima (L or LM): A simple "L" or an "LM" monogram, reflecting the silver wealth of the Kingdom of Peru.

Potosí (PTS): Intertwined "PTS" letters (or a simple "P" on older coins), associated with the legendary "Cerro Rico" (Rich Mountain).

Santiago de Chile (So): The letter "S" with a small, crowned "o" (So), introduced in the 18th century.

Bonus fact
Next to the mint mark, you will see the initials of the assayers, who were responsible for guaranteeing the coin's weight and silver purity. This combination determines the coin's value!

The military history of the 19th century is often dominated by the narrative of Western great powers expanding their empires through the ruthless use of native colonial troops—frequently employed as mere human shields or "cannon fodder." However, the Cochinchina Campaign (1858–1863) in present-day Vietnam offers a starkly different historical account that challenges this stereotype. In this conflict, the Filipino auxiliary forces and the Spanish contingent demonstrated not only remarkable combat effectiveness but also a leadership doctrine rooted in the "brotherhood of arms" and the practice of leading from the front—ultimately securing a decisive victory over the Vietnamese imperial forces.

To understand the magnitude of their success, it is essential to examine the famous Battle of Kỳ Hòa in 1861. Period paintings depicting this fierce assault present a scene that challenges the prejudices of European colonialism: Spanish officers are not found sheltered in the rear, directing the advance from the safety of their horses. On the contrary, they are seen on the front lines, sabers in hand, leading the charge on foot and breaching the dense Vietnamese defensive palisades. Following them, without hesitation, are the Filipino cazadores (light infantry) and native soldiers—recognizable by their iconic straw hats or white salacots. This way of fighting side-by-side stemmed from a deep, professional mutual respect and a doctrine in which an officer had to earn the loyalty of his men by demonstrating equal or greater courage under enemy fire. The Filipino soldier was not an expendable resource; he was a comrade-in-arms, respected for his discipline and bravery.

The performance of the Filipino auxiliary army throughout the entire war was nothing short of extraordinary. In a theater of operations characterized by dense jungle, complex fortifications, and prolonged sieges, these soldiers demonstrated superior tactical adaptability. While the French troops—part of the allied coalition—were decimated by the hundreds due to tropical diseases such as malaria, cholera, and fevers in the swamps of Saigon, the Filipino forces possessed a natural immunity and acclimatization that kept them operational during the most critical moments. Their physical endurance, combined with their ferocity in close-quarters combat and bayonet assaults, made them the preferred shock force for dismantling the positions of Tự Đức’s imperial army.

Both the Spanish army and the Filipino troops were key, indispensable elements in winning the war. The Spanish army provided the veteran officer corps, the artillery, and the tactical leadership for an infantry with a centuries-old tradition. For its part, the Filipino auxiliary force supplied the ideal operational strength for the Southeast Asian environment—light, tireless, and highly disciplined soldiers who remained undaunted by the overwhelming numerical superiority of the Vietnamese. Together, they formed an exceptionally cohesive expeditionary force that withstood the siege of Saigon while cut off from the rest of the world, and subsequently shattered the enemy’s fortified lines, compelling the Empire of Vietnam to capitulate and sign the Treaty of Saigon in 1862. It was a resounding victory, forged through blood shed together in the mud and through courageous leadership—demonstrating that respect and leading by example on the front lines are worth far more than any form of coercion.

)

Introduction

At its greatest extent, the Spanish Empire covered approximately 13.7 million km², placing it among the largest empires in world history (en.wikipedia.org). While historians and geographers have studied its expansion, territorial changes, and global influence extensively, no academic source to date has published an official calculation of the empire’s exact “geographical center” (centroid). This remains more of a conceptual and cartographic exercise than a well-established fact in historiography.

Territorial Context

Around 1790, the empire’s possessions included:

Americas: From California and parts of today’s U.S. Southwest, through Mexico, Central America, and the Caribbean, down to nearly all of South America except Brazil and the Guianas.

Europe & Africa: The Iberian Peninsula, North African strongholds (Ceuta, Melilla), the Canary Islands, and minor enclaves.

Asia & Oceania: The Philippines, Guam, the Marianas, the Carolines, Palau, and other Pacific islands (worldatlas.com, en.wikipedia.org).

How Would It Be Calculated?

1. Gather GIS cartographic data for the imperial borders in 1790 (historical map datasets).

2. Convert territorial polygons to a compatible projection (spherical Earth model).

3. Use GIS tools to calculate the area-weighted centroid adjusted for Earth’s curvature.

Approximate Manual Estimate (Conceptual Exercise)

Without GIS software, we can still make a reasoned approximation:

The Americas made up the vast majority of the empire’s landmass, pushing the centroid westward.

Asian possessions, while geographically distant to the east, were small in total area and had minimal influence on the centroid.

European and African holdings balanced the northern hemisphere bias.

From this, the center of gravity of the empire would likely fall in the North Atlantic Ocean, west of the Azores and slightly closer to the Canary Islands than to mainland America. Estimated coordinates: roughly 20–25° N, 30–40° W.

Conclusion

While no definitive academic calculation exists, it is entirely possible to determine the Spanish Empire’s centroid using modern GIS tools and historical map data. A preliminary estimate suggests that the geographical center of the empire at its height in 1790 lay somewhere in the North Atlantic, southwest of the Azores.

This kind of analysis blends cartography, history, and geography, offering a fresh way to visualize the global reach of one of history’s most influential empires.

Original text in the Apalachee language (Muscogee/Muskogean), now extinct; it is one of the very few texts preserved in that language:

“Carlos atulu pin holahta Pulaqui achit Pin Rey chuba:

Ylaa cacan̄a Yagamin Agan Abalah chi tafun canaca io n qui la Yn hulihla nihtaga amalt Pin holahta chu ba Pin Rey Yn nutat […] cumah lihin chaspa foga ia Yt hachin cholosɮna mu ih can nihtaga noc un nagag Ygua tih qui capi Yhtoga hima Ygua ma quin, it hachin nutat, ha chia Pulaqui chu ba, fo com blit, it hachin chologɮlit, noc it hachi cta hla chit, cu mat guangat ylca ihga […] Piɮqui saserdo tih los nos fihla amali Pimabachit, uni maquin, Dios Yn Yalilga guaihgag soga, nihtaga noc mah litoga lapogoc ansli, pimabachicaio Pifan ahtaɮ, Apulu maua ahta apu lu mat guan gat Yl cama quin pifan ahtago, Apu lu mat Dios Yn Yalilga iaata hita nan lacos quih los ho na ha la qui iap cat uni caio in hu lat guangat Ylca ihtan […] Yt Ymu mit guatag ɮlit pilalit chicasachi mogo […] S. Luis ta fun qua qui la, Aba lah chi, holahta buo ungia, hachin choɮt Yl caih ga hahlaua 1688 hitoc qua lali henero canacaio naihtaga 21. hachin su pac loc hachi ia pulaqui in nutat focomb guan ga caia: D. Matheo Chubaholatta, J. Mendoza, Don Bentura cacique De Ibittachuco, Don Alonso Pastrana casique de Petale, Don Patricio casiqui De Santa Cruz, D. Ygnacio casique De talpatqui.”

Spanish translation by Fray Marcelo de San Joseph:

«A Dn. Carlos II nuestro Cacique Principal y nuestro Mayor Rey:

Todos quantos nos hallamos en este territorio que se llama Abalache todos los días y de ordinario decimos: parece que a nuestro Cacique Principal y a nuestro Rey [...] Nos hallamos más rrendidos y mas obedientes y humildes a recibir vuestra palabra y mandattos luego que entre por nuestras orejas como al presente lo hacemos [...] siendo assí que nuestros padres, sacerdottes que son los que nos enseñan ttodas las cosas buenas, también nos dissen y enseñan que la palabra de Dios no se acaba no para sino que siempre va caminando para adelantte, y así estto como todas las cosas de fe los creemos con un corazón y decimos que assi lo entendemos [...] Y a los yndios infieles que bibían cerca a nuesttros pueblos los visitamos y nos visitan agasajandonos y dandonos de comer unos a otros comprando unos y vendiendo otros lo que teníamos [...] Fechada en San Luis de Abalache por todos sus caciques en el año de mill seis y cientos y ochenta y ocho y en la luna que se llama henero en sus días veinte y uno. Vuestros hijos que vuestros pies reverencia y guelen: Don Matheo Chubaholatta, Juan Mendoza, Don Bentura Cacique de Ibittachuco, Don Alonsso Pastrana Cacique de Pantalli, Don Patricio Cacique de Santa Cruz, Don Ignacio Cacique de Talpatqui.»

English translation by John H. Hann:

"To Don Carlos II, our Principal Cacique and our Greatest King:

All of us who find ourselves in this territory called Abalache say every day and ordinarily: it seems that to our Principal Cacique and to our King […] We find ourselves more surrendered and more obedient and humble to receive your word and commands as soon as they enter through our ears, as we do at present […] being thus that our fathers, the priests who are the ones who teach us all good things, also tell us and teach us that the word of God does not end or stop but always goes forward, and thus this as all the things of faith we believe with one heart and we say that thus we understand it […] And to the infidel Indians who lived near our towns we visit them and they visit us, entertaining us and giving us food to one another, buying some and selling others what we had […] Dated in San Luis de Abalache by all its caciques in the year of one thousand six hundred and eighty-eight and in the moon called January on its twenty-first day. Your sons who revere and kiss your feet. Don Matheo Chubaholatta, Juan Mendoza, Don Bentura Cacique of Ibittachuco, Don Alonso Pastrana Cacique of Pantalli, Don Patricio Cacique of Santa Cruz, Don Ignacio Cacique of Talpatqui."

Source(s):

.- Collection and study by John H. Hann: Apalachee and Timucua Chiefs’ Letters to the King in Their Own Languages, 1688 (University of Florida Digital Collections / P. K. Yonge Library of Florida History). Includes the Apalachee version, the Spanish translation, notes, and the corresponding letter from the Timucua.

The war was because of Moroccan attacks on Spanish settlements in North Africa

Oil on canvas. Jay I. Kislak Collection, Rare Book and Special Collections Division, Library of Congress.

Part of an eight-painting series created in the late 17th century, this work depicts events surrounding the Spanish conquest of the Aztec Empire in 1521.

Forwarded by the President of Guatemala, accompanied by letter number 432, dated August 26, 1785. These documents are part of a file concerning the investigation of monuments and ruins discovered in the district of Palenque, in the province of Ciudad Real de Chiapa (Kingdom of Guatemala, New Spain). 1785–1786.

Research policy during the reign of Charles III in the Maya region: the discovery of Palenque and the first scientific excavations.

Source(s):

.- General Archive of the Indies.

Execution of Louis XVI:

On January 21, 1793, King Louis XVI of France was executed. This event was one of the most significant moments of the French Revolution. On January 17, the National Convention had sentenced King Louis to death—a decision reached through a voice vote proposed by Marat, in which the death penalty was approved by 387 votes against 334 votes in favor of life imprisonment or exile.

Context in the Kingdom of Peru:

In Peru, news of the King’s execution arrived via pamphlets and letters in late August 1793, shortly after war had broken out between Spain and France. Far from finding supporters or sympathizers in Peru, the death of Louis XVI provoked aversion and rejection.

In major Peruvian cities, masses were held in honor of the late monarch, and his death was mourned for several days.

Original:

“la fatal noticia de haber los pérfidos franceses perpetrado el execrable parricidio en la sagrada persona de su Rey y Señor Natural…” (Cipriano Santiago Villota, 1793)

Translation:

“...the tragic news that the perfidious French had committed an execrable act of regicide against the sacred person of their King and natural sovereign…” (Cipriano Santiago Villota, 1793)

Although there were sympathizers of the revolution in Lima, Arequipa, and Trujillo, the death of Louis XVI led a large segment of viceregal society to oppose it. They perceived it as a rupture of the natural, social, and political order they knew; furthermore, the revolution had challenged religion—something unthinkable and unacceptable to the people of Peru.

Consequences:

Viceroy Francisco Gil de Taboada ordered the reinforcement of guards in the major cities of the viceroyalty, fearing public disorder. He also initiated a process to censor all information arriving from Europe that had not passed through a government filter; furthermore, he suggested that the clergy launch a counter-revolutionary campaign, collecting donations and disseminating anti-French sermons among the faithful.

References:

.- The French Revolutions in Peru: A Reinterpretation (1789–1848), Rosas Lauro (2007).

.- Napoleón Bonaparte y la América Latina, Abelardo Sáenz (1966).

.- Del trono a la guillotina: El impacto de la Revolución Francesa en el Perú (1789-1808), Claudia Rosas Lauro (2013).